Perfectionism is defined by striving for flawlessness and setting exceedingly high standards for performance accompanied by tendencies for overly critical self-evaluations and concerns about negative evaluations by others (Flett and Hewitt, 2002 and Frost et al., 1990). According to Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) model, perfectionism has personal and social aspects, and three forms of perfectionism can be differentiated: self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Self-oriented perfectionism comprises a person’s internal beliefs that striving for perfection and being perfect are important; it is characterized by having perfectionistic expectations for oneself. In contrast, other-oriented perfectionism involves beliefs that it is important that others meet one’s high standards for performance; it is characterized by imposing one’s own perfectionistic standards onto others and having perfectionistic expectations of others. Finally, socially prescribed perfectionism comprises beliefs that high standards are expected by others and that acceptance by others is conditional on fulfilling these standards; it is characterized by individuals’ perceptions that others impose perfectionistic standards onto them and have perfectionistic expectations they must fulfill (Enns and Cox, 2002, Hewitt and Flett, 1991 and Hewitt and Flett, 2004).
Regarding the two social forms of perfectionism of Hewitt and Flett’s (1991) model—other-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism—research has found that they show different qualities. Socially prescribed perfectionism is a maladaptive form of perfectionism. It forms part of “evaluative concerns perfectionism,” a superfactor of perfectionism combining aspects of perfectionism that are associated with negative characteristics, processes, and outcomes and psychological distress (Bieling et al., 2004, Frost et al., 1993 and Stoeber and Otto, 2006). In particular, socially prescribed perfectionism is associated with anxiety and depression (Hewitt & Flett, 2004), low satisfaction of life (Stoeber & Stoeber, 2009), and dissatisfaction with achievements (Stoeber & Yang, 2010). Moreover, regarding interpersonal characteristics, socially prescribed perfectionism is associated with interpersonal distress, interpersonal sensitivity, and low perceived social support (Hill et al., 1997, Hewitt and Flett, 2004 and Sherry et al., 2008).
In contrast, other-oriented perfectionism is an ambivalent form of perfectionism. On the one hand, it forms part of “positive strivings perfectionism,” a superfactor of perfectionism combining aspects of perfectionism that are associated with positive characteristics, processes, and outcomes (Bieling et al., 2004, Frost et al., 1993 and Stoeber and Otto, 2006). For example, other-oriented perfectionism is associated with mastery in personal projects, enhanced test performance, and job engagement (Childs and Stoeber, 2010, Flett et al., 2009 and Hewitt and Flett, 2004). On the other hand, it is associated with negative interpersonal qualities such as hostility, blaming others, and low agreeableness (Hewitt and Flett, 1991, Hewitt and Flett, 2004 and Hill et al., 1997). Moreover, in a study with university students, other-oriented perfectionism was associated with interpersonal styles characterized as arrogant, dominant, calculating, and vindictive (Hill, Zrull, & Turlington, 1997).
